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Ayesha’s research and study is on the biodiversity of the mangrove flora, the associated macrofauna and microflora observed within the mangrove ecosystems along the Mandovi estuary, Goa. Through her fieldwork, she documents and preserves plant samples collected from the mangroves as herbariums. She further collected water samples for microflora estimation, wherein bacterial colonies were isolated, quantified and characterised morphologically. This project is based on Ayesha’s thesis “Studies on biodiversity associated with the mangrove ecosystems along the Mandovi estuary, Goa (2024)” submitted to Goa University, in collaboration with artists from the SAIL program at Sunaparanta Goa Centre for the Art and artists from workshops conducted by Goa Water Stories.
The global marine ecosystems ranging from mangroves, seagrass meadows and coral reefs operate as a unifying network that monitors the health of the coastal zones. The mangrove ecosystems primarily constitute exclusive, highly productive coastal and intertidal estuarine habitats found in the tropical and sub-tropical regions around the world. They are characterized by the presence of mangrove trees that are halophytic in nature and trap sediments and pollutants that would otherwise flow out to sea. Additionally, the Red Mangrove species have the unique capacity to extract approximately 90 per cent of freshwater through the process of filtration, while the River Mangrove species excrete salts from the barks and leaves as an exceptional means of adaptation.
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Mangrove ecosystems withstand specialized tolerance to limited freshwater, high salinity, strong tides and muddy, oxygen-poor, loose substratum soils. The diverse root adaptations allow the mangrove flora to survive and thrive in challenging conditions. For instance, the breathing roots or pneumatophores are equipped with specialized functions that allow critical oxygen uptake in waterlogged conditions while stilt roots, knee roots and prop roots serve as mechanical support in the marshy land substrate.
Mangrove forests provide numerous ecological benefits to marine and coastal ecosystems by serving as essential buffer zones, protecting the shorelines from erosion, storm damage, and cyclonic impacts through the reduction of wave force and stabilizing sediments. The intricate root systems in mangroves trap and accumulate organic matter, creating a unique habitat for various organisms and providing crucial habitats for thousands of terrestrial and aquatic species of fauna and a rich diversity of microbial life ranging from fungi, bacteria, microalgae, actinomycetes, and planktonic species. These ecosystems form a supportive nursing and feeding ground for numerous fish, crustaceans, and marine invertebrate species. Many commercially crucial fish species rely on the mangroves for their early stages of life, hence critical for fisheries productivity. Furthermore, mangrove habitats for abundant species of birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians utilize these ecosystems as essential for breeding, feeding, nesting and shelter grounds against predatory impacts. Endangered species of fauna such as the Bengal Tiger, West Indian Manatee, Eastern Indigo Snake, and Brown Pelican utilize the mangrove habitats as their home grounds.
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One of the most scientifically evident features of mangrove trees is their vital ability to act as effective carbon sinks that sequester carbon dioxide from the atmosphere with approximately five to eight times higher carbon sequestration capacity in its organic form in comparison to terrestrial upland forests. The organic matter accumulated in the peat soils of the mangrove ecosystems in combination with the slow decomposition rate due to waterlogged conditions allows the mangroves to store carbon for long periods, thus significantly in the forefront of climate change mitigation.
Goa houses approximately 16 mangrove tree species like Rhizophora apiculata, Rhizophora mucronata, Derris heterophylla, Avicennia marina, Avicennia officinalis, Lumnitzera racemose, Acanthus ilicifolius, Excoecaria agallocha, Aegiceras corniculatum, Sonneratia caseolaris, Sonneratia alba, Acrostichum aureum, Kandelia candel, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Bruguiera cylindrica and Ceriops tagal along the eight estuaries.
Cultural Significance of Mangrove Ecosystems
Mangrove ecosystems hold substantial cultural significance across various regions of the world, including areas like Goa. Their importance extends beyond ecological and economic benefits to encompass various cultural, historical, and social aspects. Traditional livelihood practices like fishing and aquaculture (Khazan lands) as Mangroves provide breeding and nursery grounds for many fish and shellfish species. Communities have traditionally relied on these ecosystems for subsistence and commercial fishing.
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By harvesting resources, the local populations harvest mangrove wood for fuel, construction materials, and traditional medicines. The sustainable use of these resources is deeply rooted in cultural practices. Indigenous knowledge from indigenous and local communities possess rich traditional knowledge about mangrove ecosystems. This knowledge includes understanding the seasonal patterns, species behaviour, and sustainable harvesting practices.
Mangrove areas are often associated with cultural rituals, spiritual beliefs, and practices. In some cultures, mangroves are considered sacred spaces where rituals and ceremonies are performed. Mangroves have inspired various forms of artistic expression, including painting, music, and storytelling. The unique landscapes and biodiversity of mangroves are celebrated in local folklore and artistic traditions. Many cultures have myths and legends surrounding mangroves, which are passed down through generations. These stories often highlight the importance of mangroves in the community's history and worldview.
The Art
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The paintings and brush marks capture the act of walking, an ephemeral act of existing within the landscape. They respond to the story of the woman who lived her life among the mangroves (folk story of Maldives). The ecosystem secretes stories pertaining to its biodiversity. The mangrove apple, the sea holly, the pneumatophores, the seeds and their journey through the sea.
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Marinating memory
The triptych, is made from screen Mono print, on display with its screen printing matrix (the sewing circle). Marinating memory is a visual abstraction of salt crystals where the mangrove apples becomes a pickle. One can further decode the symbolism and the relationship between salt pans and the mangroves and how the dialogue can be created from their respective landscapes. These visual poems look at the idea of becoming a pickle as fluid memory, deconstructing it further into an abstracted diagram.
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Unbaked Terracotta Mangrove Imprints
A collaboration between Ayesha and Asavari Breaking and withering away of imprints and mangroves. The terracotta seals which archived the mangrove leaves break away floating in space.
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Photo Performances
For me, documenting also is act of performance- where the objects which were found at the roots of the sites are held, recorded and archived. By giving them a pedestal I wanted to underline the journey of theses objects when one encounters them as one studies the biodiversity. The “objects” is what we call garbage, trashed things like flammable fuel cans, empty perfume bottles, plastic, amongst various kinds of human waste.
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Documentation of Mangrove Flora
The Goa Forest Department (2024) reports state that Goa houses 16 species of mangrove flora along the estuaries of Goa and each species thrives based on its functional salinity levels.
As per the findings of the present study, the coverage of mangrove flora observed include approximately 14 species of mangrove flora, mainly, Avicennia officinalis, Avicennia marina, Avicennia alba, Acanthus ilicifolius, Sonneratia alba, Clerodendrum inerme, Excoecaria agallocha, Rhizophora apiculata, Rhizophora mucronata, Derris heterophylla, Kandelia candel, Aegiceras corniculatum, Acrostichum aureum and Bruguiera cylindrica observed along the five sampling sites. These include Saint Estevam Island, Divar Island, Chorão Island, Penhe de Franca-Britona and Ponte de Linhares Causeway – Ribandar.
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According to the Goa Forest Department (2024), the island of Saint Estevam has not been previously officially documented for its mangrove flora coverage, hence, our research provided new documentation of mangrove flora species observed along the Saint Estevam site. The mangrove flora species Clerodendrum inerme was observed to be a new finding documented at Saint Estevam Island, Divar Island, Chorão Island and Ponte de Linhares Causeway – Ribandar along the Mandovi estuary in comparison to previous scientific research reports. Flora specimens were stored as herbariums. Furthermore, the mangrove flora documented from each sampling site was characterised site-wise based on its diversity and abundance count within one kilometre of each sampling site.
In terms of zonation, different mangrove species are adapted to specific zones within the tidal range:
- The Intertidal Zone is submerged during high tide and exposed during low tide. Species like Avicennia marina (Grey Mangrove) and Rhizophora mucronata (Red Mangrove) are typically found here, adapted to frequent inundation and tidal fluctuations.
- A Supratidal Zone is a higher zone that is only occasionally flooded by high tides or storm surges. Species such as Avicennia officinalis (Indian Mangrove) and Aegiceras corniculatum (River Mangrove) are found in this zone, which is characterized by less frequent inundation but still influenced by saltwater.
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Herbariums
Herbariums
Mangrove Associated Macrofauna and Microflora Documentation
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From the selected six sampling sites, the macrofaunal diversity and abundance count was documented. The prevalent macrofauna associated within the mangrove ecosystems observed were further classified into the categories, that is, avifauna species, terrestrial invertebrate fauna species, and aquatic fauna species respectively. The coverage of macrofauna in terms of its diversity and count during the Monsoon and Post-monsoon season were described through ecological indices. The bacterial microflora was isolated on Zobell Marine Agar from water samples obtained from estuarine water samples obtained from each sampling site in the Monsoon and Post-monsoon season. Further, the colony characteristics and bacterial viable count of the isolated bacterial microflora were observed and subsequently, the identification of bacterial microflora was carried out by Gram staining* characteristics.
*The Grams staining technique developed in 1884 by Danish scientist Hans Christian Gram is used to identify and make bacteria more visible
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Influence of Physicochemical Parameters
Testing physicochemical parameters such as temperature, salinity, and Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) in estuarine water is critical for understanding the health and dynamics of mangrove ecosystems, especially in the context of climate change. Temperature influences the metabolic rates of aquatic organisms, including fish, invertebrates, and microorganisms. Changes in temperature can affect growth rates, reproduction and survival. Regular monitoring of temperature helps in understanding the impacts of climate change on estuarine ecosystems and in developing strategies to mitigate these impacts.
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Climate change is causing global temperatures to rise, leading to changes in water temperature. This can result in thermal stress on mangrove species and associated fauna, potentially altering species distributions and ecosystem functioning.
Mangroves and estuarine species are adapted to specific salinity ranges. Salinity affects the osmoregulation, growth, and distribution of these species. Climate change can alter salinity patterns through sea level rise, increased evaporation rates,
and changes in freshwater input from rivers. Increased salinity can stress mangrove species and affect their health and productivity. By tracking salinity changes, scientists can predict and manage the impacts on mangrove ecosystems, ensuring the survival of these critical habitats. Changes in temperature and salinity can influence microbial activity and organic matter decomposition rates, potentially altering Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) levels. Increased temperatures can enhance microbial activity, leading to higher BOD and lower oxygen levels. BOD measures the amount of oxygen required by microorganisms to decompose organic matter in water. High BOD levels indicate high levels of organic pollution, which can deplete oxygen and harm aquatic life. Regular BOD assessments help in detecting pollution levels and assessing the health of estuarine waters.
Climate change is causing global temperatures to rise, leading to changes in water temperature. This can result in thermal stress on mangrove species and associated fauna, potentially altering species distributions and ecosystem functioning.
Mangroves and estuarine species are adapted to specific salinity ranges. Salinity affects the osmoregulation, growth, and distribution of these species. Climate change can alter salinity patterns through sea level rise, increased evaporation rates, and changes in freshwater input from rivers. Increased salinity can stress mangrove species and affect their health and productivity. By tracking salinity changes, scientists can predict and manage the impacts on mangrove ecosystems, ensuring the survival of these critical habitats. Changes in temperature and salinity can influence microbial activity and organic matter decomposition rates, potentially altering Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) levels. Increased temperatures can enhance microbial activity, leading to higher BOD and lower oxygen levels. BOD measures the amount of oxygen required by microorganisms to decompose organic matter in water. High BOD levels indicate high levels of organic pollution, which can deplete oxygen and harm aquatic life. Regular BOD assessments help in detecting pollution levels and assessing the health of estuarine waters.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
(Monsoon & Post Monsoon Season comparison)
Bacterial Viable Count
(Monsoon & Post Monsoon Season)
BOD vs bacterial viable count
(Monsoon & Post Monsoon Season)
BOD vs salinity
(Monsoon & Post Monsoon Season)
BOD vs temperature
(Monsoon & Post Monsoon Season)
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
(Monsoon & Post Monsoon Season comparison)
Bacterial Viable Count
(Monsoon & Post Monsoon Season)
BOD vs bacterial viable count
(Monsoon & Post Monsoon Season)
BOD vs salinity
(Monsoon & Post Monsoon Season)
BOD vs temperature
(Monsoon & Post Monsoon Season)
Biostatistical Analysis
The biostatistical data analysed was key to prove the critical influence of changing physiochemical parameters influencing the loss of biodiversity within the mangrove ecosystems. Correlation studies were utilized to estimate the influence of salinity and temperature on the total macrofauna species during the Monsoon and Post-monsoon seasons.
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The findings reported suggest a negative correlation or inverse correlation exists predominantly in the Monsoon season between the total macrofauna due to the influence of the physicochemical parameters. This suggests that an increase in the temperature and salinity may result in a decrease in species richness of the total macrofauna within the sampling sites.
Furthermore, the species diversity and species richness in terms of its flora and fauna species were documented and analysed using the Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index and Margalef Index respectively. The species diversity of mangrove flora and macrofauna was calculated using the Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index for the six sampling sites. The analysis of the index revealed that as a result of light to moderate pollution level influences, anapproximately less to moderate diversity of mangrove flora and macrofauna was observed. The Margalef Index was utilized for calculating the species richness of the mangrove flora and macrofauna within the six sampling sites. This index suggested an overall low level of species richness as observation.
One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) followed by post-hoc test showcased a significant difference (p<0.001) between the macrofauna observed at the control site (closest to the Mandovi river source) and the other five sampling sites (increasing salinity levels towards the Arabian sea). This offers insights into the influence and impact of changing salinity and its role in shaping the species diversity and richness of mangrove-associated biodiversity of its flora and fauna species.
Mangrove Flora
Mangrove Avifauna
Mangrove Aquatic Fauna
Mangrove Terrestrial Fauna
Mangrove Flora
H’ Value Shannon-Weiner Index mangrove flora diversity
Mangrove Flora
Mangrove Flora Species Diversity
Mangrove Flora
Species Richness Margalef Index for Mangrove Flora
Mangrove Avifauna
H’ Value Shannon-Weiner IndexAvifauna diversity
Mangrove Avifauna
Avifauna Species Diversity
Mangrove Avifauna
Species Richness Margalef Index for Avifauna
Mangrove Aquatic fauna
H’ Value Shannon-Weiner Index Aquatic Fauna diversity
Mangrove Aquatic fauna
Aquatic fauna Species Diversity
Mangrove Aquatic fauna
Species Richness Margalef Index for Aquatic fauna
Mangrove Terrestrial Fauna
H’ Value Shannon-Weiner Index Terrestrial Fauna diversity
Mangrove Terrestrial Fauna
Avifauna Terrestrial Invertebrate Fauna
Mangrove Terrestrial Fauna
Species Richness Margalef Index for Terrestrial Invertebrate
The Zines
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Unfortunately, mangrove ecosystems face frequent threats due to anthropogenic activities stemming from deforestation, unsustainable land-use patterns arising from aquaculture, agriculture, and coastal development needs are significant causes of concern. Pollution stemming from oil spills, industrial activities, water diversion, landfills, and improper municipal and sewage waste disposal also pose risks to these intricate ecosystems. The impacts of climate change, including rising sea levels and increased frequency of extreme weather events further exacerbate the challenges faced by mangroves.
According to the UNESCO World Heritage Convention 2010 reports, satellite analysis by NASA and US Geological Survey state that the global mangrove coverage is 1,37,760 sq. km. in approximately 123 countries. This is approximately 12.3per cent lower than prior estimates and continues to shrink. In India, the mangrove cover is estimated at 4,975 sq. km., which constitutes 0.15 percent of the country’s total geographical area. As per the 2019 reports from the MoEFCC (Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change), the mangrove coverage in India has increased by 1.10 percent (54 sq.km). However, evidence gathered from the past three decades in Goa shows a sharp decline of mangrove coverage from 20,000 ha in 1987 to 2,200 ha in 2015.
Mangrove conservation in Goa is a multifaceted approach involving stringent policies, active community participation, and dedicated efforts from NGOs. These efforts are crucial for protecting these vital ecosystems from threats such as deforestation, pollution, and climate change. Continued collaboration between government agencies, local communities, and NGOs is essential for the sustainable management and conservation of mangroves in Goa. The Government policy initiatives and laws include the following :
Forest Conservation Act, 1980:
It aims to regulate the diversion of forest land for non-forest purposes and ensures compensatory afforestation. Mangrove forests are protected under this act, and any development activity impacting these areas requires prior approval from the central government.
Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification, 2019:
It aims to regulate development activities along the coast to protect coastal ecosystems, including mangroves. Mangroves are classified as ecologicallysensitive areas (ESAs) under the CRZ regulations. Any development within 50 meters of mangrove areas is restricted to prevent habitat destruction.
Goa, Daman and Diu Town and Country Planning Act, 1974:
It aims to provide guidelines for land use planning and development control in the region. The act includes provisions for protecting natural resources, including mangroves, through proper land use planning and development regulations.
The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972:
It aims to provide for the protection of wild animals, birds, and plants. Certain mangrove areas are designated as protected areas under this act, ensuring legal protection from exploitation and habitat destruction.
Within Goa, the Mangrove Cell setup by the Goa State Biodiversity Board and the Integrated Coastal Zone Management Project (ICZMP) aims to regulate monitoring, research, and awareness programs to protect mangrove habitats and promote sustainable use practices.
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Acknowledgements
In the successful accomplishment of my M.Sc. thesis and the fellowship for the Goa Water Project, I would like to extend my earnest appreciation to all those who have helped me in the completion and collaboration of my dissertation project titled “Studies on Biodiversity associated with the mangrove ecosystems along the Mandovi estuary, Goa”.
For the completion of my M.Sc. thesis, I would firstly like to express my sincere gratitude towards our current Dean Sr. Prof. Sanjeev C. Ghadi, and previous Dean Sr. Prof. C.U. Rivonker, for allowing me to carry out my dissertation and availing all facilities of the School. I am profoundly grateful to my guide, Dr Chanda Berde, Marine Microbiology Program, School of Earth, Ocean, and Atmospheric Sciences, Goa University for her valuable guidance, immense encouragement and support, as well as her determined effort during the course of my dissertation.
I thank Dr Varada Damare, Program Director, Marine Microbiology, for providing all the requirements for my dissertation work. Furthermore, I would like to express my sincere thanks and appreciation to my parents for their constant support and encouragement throughout the completion of this work and a sincere thanks to my friends for all their support too. I would also like to express my earnest gratitude towards Mr Uday Mandrekar “Birdman of Goa” for his guidance on the avifauna coverage in the mangrove ecosystems along the Mandovi estuary. I would also like to express my sense of appreciation to the laboratory staff members for providing all the essential requirements in order to facilitate the successful completion of this project.
For the research-art-based collaborative initiative for the Goa Water Stories fellowship in collaboration with researchers from Goa University and artists from SAIL – Sunaparanta Centre for the Arts and The Living Waters Museum, I would like to express my gratitude towards Dr Sulochana Pednekar, Assistant Professor from Women’s Studies as faculty in-charge for the researchers selected from Goa University. I would also like to extend my appreciation to Ms Asavari Gurav, the artist from SAIL for contributing to the mangrove project with her artwork and encouraging me to showcase my art in the form of poetry, illustrations, terracotta sculpting and zines.
