The Wells of Goa

Rehaan Diaz

Video, Illustration, Photographs and Text

Read Time
24 mins

Keywords

Wells

Groundwater

Culture

Community

Rehaan has been travelling and photographing the numerous wells within homes across the many villages across Goa. Through his story, he meets and engages with the community that traditionally digs and maintains these wells. He examines the festival of São João which is celebrated and centred around the well. The ‘Wells of Goa’ highlights the concerns and issues of depleting groundwater resources and the impact of development, pollution and climate change on potable water.

A quarter of a century ago, wells were a common sight near every home in Goa. Every dwelling, by default, had its well. Wells hold significant importance in Goa, serving as vital sources of water and contributing to the state’s cultural and historical heritage. Historically, wells have been essential to Goa’s agrarian communities, particularly under the ‘comunidades’ system, where they were used to support agricultural activities and meet the water needs of the local population. Today, there are still 6,000 wells in Goa, with nearly 80 per cent being open wells used primarily for domestic and agricultural purposes. According to Goa's State Water Policy 2021, the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) estimated Goa's annual extractable groundwater resources at 160.33 million cubic metres (MCuM) as of March 2017, with the extraction of groundwater for all uses at 53.71 MCuM.

The ratio of annual groundwater draft to net annual groundwater availability in percentage stands at 34 per cent for the entire state of Goa. Consequently, all talukas in Goa are classified as ‘safe’ in terms of groundwater levels. However, the policy highlights a significant gap in recent and reliable estimates of water requirements for specific sectors. This lack of comprehensive data on both the resource and utilisation sides makes it difficult to fully understand how much water is being used and where. To address this, the water resources department has initiated a massive drive to geotag wells across the state. These renewed efforts in water conservation follow an intensive mapping of all water bodies in Goa.

The sound of a kouso (round copper pot) being thrown into the well, followed by a low gurgling sound as water filled inside it. Then, squeak and pause, squeak and pause, as it was pulled up to the top of the pulley. She (the house help) would then pull it towards her and rest it on the embankment in a spot that had a slight dip, undo the noose around the kouso’s neck and pour water into a bucket. Carrying this bucket to the nahni (bathroom), she would mix the hot modki (copper vessel) water with the cold well water to make warm bathing water for me. And then disappear to tend to her other work.

"The sound of well water being drawn was music to the ears”. From the book Romalina, as author Clarice Vaz reminisces about the wood-smoked bathwater from her childhood as a young Goan girl"

Groundwater and Wells

In Goa, groundwater is typically found at shallow depths, with laterites being the most common water-bearing formations. The plateaus, which dominate the midland and coastal plains, are graced with natural springs around their slopes, serving as vital sources of water for rural communities. Abundant rainfall is the main source of groundwater recharge in Goa. Here, rainwater infiltrates the porous and fractured laterites, percolating down to emerge as contact springs or streams along the slopes, which in turn feed many open wells in low-lying areas. However, human activities, particularly in coastal, mining, and industrial areas like Calangute, Quepem and Verna, have taken a toll on groundwater. Mining operations involve cutting the top layer of laterite on the plateaus, reducing the rainwater recharge area and causing springs, wells, and streams to dry up. Laterite quarrying has a similar impact.

Goa is blessed with both surface and groundwater

00:22 secs

Chorla Plateau Waterfall, North Goa - December 2023.

A well full to the brim during the monsoons in Goa.

Chorla Plateau Waterfall, North Goa - December 2023.

A well full to the brim during the monsoons in Goa.

The India Meteorological Department (IMD and the Decadal records (1970-2000) estimate that the South-West monsoon (June-Sept) averages a rainfall of 2500 mm along the Goan coast and 4100mm towards the Western Ghats in Goa, for an average seasonal rainfall of 3045 mm. This results in water levels in wells reaching close to the ground surface by July. Orography (i.e. the elevations of mountains, hills and plateaus) plays an important role in the distribution of rainfall over Goa⁵. Along with Coastal Karnataka and Kerala, the Konkan regions receive the maximum precipitation over the west coast of India. According to the Dynamic Groundwater Resources of Goa – 2022 report by the Government of Goa, all 12 taluks are currently classified as ‘safe’ in terms of groundwater extraction. However, taluks with higher populations, construction, and industries—such as Ponda, Pernem, Bardez, Tiswadi, Salcette and Marmugao – are extracting close to or more than 30 per cent of the available groundwater, which is above the state average of 23 per cent.

This heavy rainfall causes water levels in wells to rise close to the ground surface by July. The region's orography, including its mountains, hills, and plateaus, significantly influences rainfall patterns across Goa. Along with Coastal Karnataka and Kerala, the Konkan regions receive the highest precipitation along the west coast of India.

Virat Singh is a migrant trucker from Jharkhand. His run of the tanker at night is what keeps the theatres and food courts in Mall de Goa running.

Rapid Urbanisation

Since the late 90s, the coastal belt of Goa has seen its groundwater over-exploited, causing the water table in those vaddos (wards) to plummet. Despite the passing of the Groundwater Regulation Act in 2002, this issue persists. With 60 per cent of Goa's population living along the urban coastal belt and the majority of tourists flocking to the shoreline, the water demand has skyrocketed. Tourism, being highly water-intensive, exacerbates the deficit, necessitating the use of water tankers to bring supplies from inland villages. This has given rise to a new group of players—water peddlers. Claude Alvarez describes the modus operandi of these water peddlers in his book, Fish, Curry and Rice. Enterprising locals apply for loans to dig wells, supposedly for agricultural purposes. Once the wells are dug and water starts flowing, it is not used for irrigation or cultivation. Instead, the water is commodified and sold for profit, filling swimming pools in gated communities and luxury hotels, catering to tourists seeking a getaway.

A water tanker topping up before their delivery runs to a property on the Calangute beach and Pilerne Industrial Estate

00:40 secs

Salmona Spring in its halcyon days. It has now been reduced to being a pale shadow of itself | courtesy, Clarice Vaz

00:13 secs

The village of Saligao has especially borne the brunt of industrial needs, construction demands, and the tourism economy draining its water resources. This video that photographs the best days of Saligao’s Salmona Spring remains a memory. The sudden and ongoing influx of well-off migrants during the pandemic and a boom in real estate activities in Assagao are also leading to something very similar. Here, market forces turbocharged a quiet village into a quasi-westernised suburbia. And increasingly, villages are seeing the water in their wells becoming unfit to drink as they are becoming contaminated due to seepage of industrial waste and septic tanks or just drying out.

A commercial well in Socorro, ready to satiate the thirst of tankers headed to Porvorim.

A tanker from an interior village running its morning shift to the coastal hospitality belt.

The demand for water keeps rising, causing wells to dry up faster than before. Borewells are then drilled to replace them, further depleting the underground water reserves and leading to a manufactured shortage and crisis. According to a Mongabay news report, Goa faces a shortfall of 85 million litres of water per day. The Groundwater Year Book of Goa 2022-23 attributes the fall in water levels to localized over-extraction of groundwater. The Goa Ground Water Policy (2015) also highlights stressed areas in the industrial, coastal, urban and mining regions¹⁰. Underground streams swiftly flowing beneath plateaus are vital ecological mechanisms, crucial for natural drainage, groundwater recharge, and maintaining water levels and quality. The loss of these recharge areas has immediate consequences for the future. When plateaus are flattened for construction projects and SEZs (Special Economic Zones), millions of litres of water can be lost. This trend is clearly reflected in the declining water levels of Goan wells, particularly in areas near unchecked urbanisation and extensive concreting.

The water tank in Carrem which pumps potable water to neighbouring areas.

The water pipeline supplying to Bardez taluka is seen running parallel to NH-66.

Changing Consumption

Urbanisation over the last 20 to 30 years has changed water consumption patterns in Goa. Surface water from lakes and rivers now contributes significantly to the piped water supply, reducing the importance of wells. The Government of India claims that Goa became the first state to provide piped water to every household. However, reports by Mongabay suggest otherwise. While most Goans receive piped water through one of the nine government water supply schemes, the supply is often erratic and unreliable. In 2024, both urban areas in Panjim and rural areas in Sanguem have faced water shortages.

Aquifers filling, groundwater swelling in a community well in Aldona, used for Ganesh Visarjan

Underground streams and raindrops fill up an old well in Verna.

A well with the wooden lever and pulley of yesteryears.

It is common to have wells adjacent to tiny rivulets, so that the water level never dips too low any time of the year.

The water tank in Carrem which pumps potable water to neighbouring areas. 

The water pipeline supplying to Bardez taluka is seen running parallel to NH-66.

Aquifers filling, groundwater swelling in a community  well in Aldona, used for Ganesh Visarjan 

Underground streams and raindrops fill up an old well  in Verna.

A well with the wooden lever and pulley of yesteryears.

It is common to have wells adjacent to tiny rivulets, so that the water level never dips too low any time of the year. 

Just 6 feet under, the well captures the elixir and parts of the silver sky.

Change is constant and as time has passed, the spaces around wells in Goa have evolved too. However, these wells remain a valuable resource for many households, just as they were in the past. If you think all wells are circular, think again. There is a great deal of variation and versatility in their shapes and appearances. Sadly, hundreds of wells now lie in various states of disrepair and abandonment. Today, a well can be dug and constructed much more quickly compared to a few decades ago.

A narrow well on Dayanand Bandodkar Marg, Panjim is now surrounded by offices on one side and the Mandovi river to the other.

The layers of Panjim – the old and the new making space for each other in Campal.

An eccentrically shaped well, is covered off and transformed into a dais for daily performances in Peng’s Restaurant, Saligao. It continues to provide water for the premises.

Jamun in Assagao has creatively designed its dining space around the Portuguese-era well.

A narrow well on Dayanand Bandodkar Marg, Panjim is now surrounded by offices on one side and the Mandovi river to the other.

The water tank in Carrem which pumps potable water to neighbouring areas. 

An eccentrically shaped well, is covered off and transformed into a dais for daily performances in Peng’s Restaurant, Saligao. It continues to provide water for the premises.

Jamun in Assagao has creatively designed its dining space around the Portuguese-era well.

Goa is full of unconventionally shaped wells. Here’s one with 3 straight sides and one curved one, Salvador do Mundo.
A semi-circular well with overgrown monsoon foliage all around.
A well with the wooden lever and pulley of yesteryears.

A long forgotten washing stone and a derelict well, evidenced by the Gulmohar tree.

This well in Defence Colony is sealed off with concrete with a manhole left for emergencies.

A neglected well with a deeply plummeted water level in Alto Porvorim.

A semi-circular well with overgrown monsoon foliage all around.

A quarter-circle shaped well, sharing its boundaries with the house.

Goa is full of unconventionally shaped wells. Here’s one with 3 straight sides and one curved one, Salvador do Mundo.

Wells fall into disrepair not only due to immigration, but also redevelopment. A house is razed down to make way for a  gated-villa community in Serula

Abandoned wells are taken over quite swiftly by creepers, while the landowners immigrate in pursuit of even greener pastures

A long forgotten washing stone and a derelict well, evidenced by the Gulmohar tree.
This well in Defence Colony is sealed off with concrete with a manhole left for emergencies.
A neglected well with a deeply plummeted water level in Alto Porvorim.

Wells form a lively ecosystem, drawing from the water table to sustain the surrounding flora and fauna. Regular upkeep is essential to remove accumulated silt, debris, and organic matter. Traditionally, the most common method used to clean the well was manual. This was done with the help of bindull or kollso. Ropes and pulleys were typically used for this purpose. This would happen during the summer month when the water level was at its lowest, making it easier to access the well walls and bottom. The cleaners would come by 4 in the morning and the cleaning would end by 12 noon. In Goa, the pre-monsoon months are the busiest for well cleaners and diggers. Their maintenance work includes desilting, coating the well with lime, and cleaning with potassium permanganate. These practices ensure both clean water and the longevity of the well.

In Goa, the pre-monsoon months are the busiest for well cleaners and diggers. Their maintenance work includes desilting, coating the well with lime, and cleaning with potassium permanganate. These practices ensure both clean water and the longevity of the well.

Cleaning of a well
Courtesy: Vishwanath Srikantaiah (Biome, Bangalore)

00:12 secs

A square dug well used by an elderly couple to irrigate their winter crop.

Panoramic view of a well site in May 2024.

Goa is full of unconventionally shaped wells. Here’s one with 3 straight sides and one curved one, Salvador do Mundo.

A semi-circular well with overgrown monsoon foliage all around.

A quarter-circle shaped well, sharing its boundaries with the house.

Wells fall into disrepair not only due to immigration, but also redevelopment. A house is razed down to make way for a gated-villa community in Serula

Abandoned wells are taken over quite swiftly by creepers, while the landowners immigrate in pursuit of even greener pastures

A square dug well used by an elderly couple to irrigate their winter crop.

Panoramic view of a well site in May 2024.

Kalu M, hailing from Karnataka enjoys a sip of niro (fresh cashew apple juice) during a break.
Power tools have made it easier to chisel and shape the laterite stones as desired.
Project supervisor Jivaji took stock of the dug pit during sundown.
A light moment is shared between the well-diggers as work nears completion.

Chorla Plateau Waterfall, NoKalu M, hailing from Karnataka enjoys a sip of niro (fresh cashew apple juice) during a breakrth Goa - December 2023.

Power tools have made it easier to chisel and shape  the laterite stones as desired.
Project supervisor Jivaji took stock of the dug pit during sundown.
A light moment is shared between the well-diggers as work nears completion.

The Making of a Well in Livrament Waddo, Sangolda 2024

02:20 mins

Local politicians ensure that the São João Revellers Wells are well taken care of.

Cultural Significance of Wells

Wells were once vital community gathering spots, central to village life in Goa. They served not only as places for drawing water but also as hubs for social interactions. Villagers would come to draw water, socialise, share news, and conduct trade. Women would gather near the well, composing and singing local tunes that reflected the nostalgia, beauty, and importance of wells in their daily lives. These melodies and lyrics – for example: “Sogli rat baim-kodde, kinni kinni zata kana kode” – reveal the deep connection Goans have with their land and the significant role wells played in their routines.

The Saptakoteshwar Temple Tank, Chorao Islands. Built and patronised by the Kadamba dynasty and known as Koti-Tirth, it was rebuilt by the Vijayanagar Kingdom in 1391, before being destroyed by Portuguese raids in 1540.

A verse in the Rigveda states that the 'rays of the sun are the cause of the rain and that the sun extracts water from all parts of the world and the earth is continuously engaged in extraction and discharge of water', referring to the hydrologic cycle. A well in Benaulim in the olden times was a place of courtship courtesy of a bhatkar (landlord) who organised dance parties in the yard of his house. Its popularity meant the youngsters swelled in number, and it became a place where love bloomed. The well in the backyard was christened – Moga Baim (Well of Love). To this day, locals have tales to tell of those nights.

A couple enjoys a quiet moment at the Moga Baim as the sun sets.

A young man in mid-leap into the well

The narration of St John the Baptist

The Boat Festiva of Siolim that began in the mid-80s

People of all ages come wearing kopels on their heads

Canoes from the neighbouring villages of Badem, Assagoa, Anjuna, Chapora and Vagator come in and garland at the cross in front of St. Anthony’s Church

The canoes and floats from the neighbouring villages

One of the most awaited festivals in the year, it brings tremendous joy and goodwill to the Goans

São João Fest 2024 Goa

01:40mins

Wells hold significant cultural importance in Goa, especially during the São João Festival celebrated annually on 24th June. On this day, the Goan Catholic community honours the feast of St John the Baptist. A key tradition involves the newest son-in-law of the village being invited by his mother-in-law to lunch and the prior jumping into the family well. This is followed by other revellers, who adorn themselves with kopels (wreaths of flowers) as they joyfully leap into the village wells and ponds filled to the brim by the arrival of the South-West monsoon rains. The village comes alive with communal celebrations, reverberating with the chants of "Viva São João” and marked by the sharing of sweets, long lunches and the occasional tot of feni (a local brew made from coconut or cashew).

But why do people jump into a well?

The church points to the gospel narration that St. John leapt in the womb of his mother Elizabeth when her cousin Mary, who was also expecting, went to visit her. The São João Festival commemorates that leap of joy. It shows that even though they are not yet born, John recognises that Jesus is God’s son. Apart from being a celebration of that jump of ecstasy, the ritual of jumping into wells is also a replaying of how St. John the Baptist used to baptise believers – by dipping them in rivers.

One of the most awaited festivals in the year, it brings tremendous joy and goodwill to the Goans

The Boat Festiva of Siolim that began in the mid-80s

The narration of St John the Baptist

People of all ages come wearing kopels on their heads

Canoes from the neighbouring villages of Badem, Assagoa, Anjuna, Chapora and Vagator come in and garland at the cross in front of St. Anthony’s Church

The canoes and floats from the neighbouring villages

Jamun in Assagao has creatively designed its dining space around the Portuguese-era well.

“It is not just sepia-tinted nostalgia and romanticism that encourages the preservation and proliferation of wells. They form a network for water security and are a bellwether of local ecological patterns. It is a resource that needs care and protection, not neglect and exploitation so that they remain a cornerstone of Goan life.”

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Acknowledgements

Thanks to the Goa State Library (Panjim), Vishwanath Srikantaiah (Biome), Clarice Vaz, Raju Anant Gawade, Kalu M, Lyndon Jude Pinto, Norma Cordeiro, Natasha Yadav and Nikita Harikishan.

All images and footage are shot by Rehaan Diaz unless specified otherwise.
Additional images and video: Clarice Vaz
Drone Footage: Wilson Fernandes, Rishabh Beria
Music: Tarvotti by Minguel Rod, São João by O'luv Rodriguez